ZAKRIA PHARMACY

Pharmacognosy ADULTERATION: Adulteration is a particle of substituting original crude drug partially or whole with other similar looking substances but the latter is either free form or inferior in chemical and therapeutic properties.                                       OR      Adulteration in simple words is the debasement of an article                                    OR      Adulteration is broadly defined as admixture or substitution of original or genuine article/ drug with inferior, defective or otherwise useless or harmful substnces. ADULTRANT:     The adulterant must be same material which in both cheap and available in fairly large amounts. TYPES OF ADULTERATION: Deliberate ( international ) adulteration Accidental ...

TACHYPHYLAXIS AND TOLERANCE  CONTENTS Definition of tachyphylaxis Definition of tolerance Mechanisms that give rise to tachyphylaxis  TACHYPHYLAXIS    Defination Tachyphylaxis is a medical term describing the decrease in the response to a drug after repeated doses.  It is also called Desensitisation. GRAPH SHOWING TACHYPHYLAXIS TOLERANCE Definition Tolerance resembles tachyphylaxis in meaning, but this is a phenomenon where increasing the amount of a drug is required to gain the same effect.  MECHANISMS OF DRUG TACHYPHYLAXIS: change in receptors  loss of receptors  exhaustion of mediators  increased metabolic degradation of the drug  physiological adaptatation active extrusion of drug from cells (mainly relevant in cancer chemotherapy) CHANGE IN RECEPTORS Receptors that are directly coupled to ion channels show desensitisation which is often rapid and pronounced At...

DRUG INTERACTIONS  DEFINITION Drug interaction is defined as the pharmacological activity of  one drug is altered by the concominant use of another drug or by the presence of some other substance. The Drug whose Activity is effected by such an Interaction is called as a “Object drug.”  The agent which precipitates such an interaction is refered to as the “Precipitant”. 1.Drug-drug interactions. 2.Drug-food interactions. 3.Chemical-drug interactions. 4.Drug-laboratory test interactions. 5.Drug-disease interactions. The Net effect of a Drug Interaction is: Generally quantitative i.e.increased or decreased effect. Seldom qualitative i.e.rapid or slower effect. Precipitation of newer or increased adverse effect. Drug interactions are thus- Mostly undesirable Rarely desirable(beneficial): for eg.,enhancement of activity of penicillins when administered with probenecid. Factors contributing to drug interacti...

               RANUNCULACEAE  Also called as Butter cup or Crowfoot family. It is a family of over 2,000 known species of flowering plants in 43 genera . HABIT : Plants are annual or perennial herbs. HABITAT : Central Europe, Canada, USA. STEM : Young stems with solid internodes, or with hollow internodes. LEAVES : Opposite or whorled leaves , simple or compound. INFLORESENCE :  Cymes or racemes or panicles. FLOWER : Hypogynous, usually bisexual and actinomorphic; sometimes polygamous or dioecious. COROLLA : 3-5 petals, polypetalous, or partially gamopetalous, or gamopetalous CALYX : 3-5 or 8 sepals, polysepalous, or partially gamosepalous, or gamosepalous. FRUIT : Usually non-fleshy, or fleshy (rarely), a follicle, or an achene, or baccate. IMPORTANT MEDICINAL PLANTS OF  RANUNCULACEAE ACONITUM BOTANICAL ORIGIN : Aconitum napellus Common Name : Aconite Part used : Dried roots Habit : ...

ANTIDIARRHEAL AGENTS Diarrhea Abnormal frequent passage of loose stool  or Abnormal passage of stools with increased frequency, fluidity, and weight, or with increased stool water excretion. Diarrhea is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day.  Diarrhea can be caused by  An increased osmotic load within the intestine (resulting in retention of water within the lumen)  Excessive secretion of electrolytes and water into the intestinal lumen. Exudation of protein and fluid from the mucosa. Altered intestinal motility resulting in rapid transit (and decreased fluid absorption).  Pharmacotherapy of diarrhea should be reserved for patients with significant or persistent symptoms.  Nonspecific antidiarrheal agents typically do not address the underlying pathophysiology responsible for the diarrhea; their principal utility is to provide symptomatic relief in mild cases of a...

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM: NERVOUS SYSTEM CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM A. Brain B. Spinal cord PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM  A. SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM   B. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM  1. Parasympathetic Nervous System  2. Sympathetic Nervous System   3. Enteric Nervous System ANS The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is largely autonomous (independent) in that its activities are not under direct conscious control.  PARASYMPATHETIC NS SYMPATHETIC NS COMPONENTS OF ANS Pre-ganglionic fibers  Ganglia Post-ganglionic fibres Effector organ (gland,muscle) JUNCTIONAL GAPS: SYNAPSE Communication between  two neurons NEUROEFFECTOR      JUNCTIONS b/w neuron & effector   organ Neurotransmitter is release  Which excite the post  synaptic receptor Receptors   Particular three dimensional structure having a...

Lipid lowering agents A t h e r o g e n e s i s  involves several stages: endothelial dysfunction with altered PGI2 and NO synthesis monocyte attachment endothelial cells bind LDL oxidatively modified LDL is taken up by macrophages having taken up oxidised LDL, these macrophages (now foam cells) migrate  subendothelially atheromatous plaque formation rupture of the plaque LIPIDS, including CHOLESTEROL and TRIGLYCERIDES (TG), are transported in the plasma as lipoproteins, of which there are four classes:      - chylomicrons transport TG and CHO from the GIT to the tissues, where      they are split by lipase, releasing free fatty acids. They  are taken up in muscle and adipose  tissue. Chylomicron remnants are taken up in the liver      - very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), which transport CHO and newly synthesized TG to the tissues, where TGs are removed as before, leaving:     -...